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What we know: Greenhouse gas mitigation strategies can lead to significant and potentially cost-effective public health co-benefits (Gao et al., 2018). Switching to use lower-carbon-emission vehicles (i.e., more efficient engines and fuel switching) and increasing the uptake of active transport has co-benefits for public health and environment outcomes. Implementation in the UK was estimated to lead to a 60% reduction in transport-related CO2 emissions from 1990 levels and in one year, save 7439 DALYS and 541 premature deaths in London per million population (see Woodcock et al., 2009 in Gao et al., 2018).
What we know: Greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation strategies can lead to significant and potentially cost-effective public health co-benefits (Gao et al., 2018). Urban climate change mitigation approaches that incorporate policies in transport, building and energy sectors have been modelled to all reduce CO2 emissions (to different degrees) with co-benefits for health (see Sabel et al., 2016 in Gao et al., 2018). Adopting energy efficiency and fuel substitution policy measures in México City, São Paulo, Santiago, and New York from 2000 to 2020 was estimated to reduce GHG emissions by about 13% and prevent about 64,000 premature deaths (CI: 18,000-116,000) by reducing exposure to PM10 and O3 by 10% (see Cifuentes et al., 2001 in Gao et al., 2018).
What we know: Greenhouse gas mitigation strategies can lead to significant and potentially cost-effective public health co-benefits (Gao et al., 2018). Abatement and reduction technological approaches to reduce emissions (CO2, PM10 and SO2) via coal use have been examined in China and estimated to increase energy efficiency and have potential co-benefits such as avoiding 75,000-7,723,000 life years (see Aunan et al., 2004 in Gao et al., 2018). Adopting global methane abatement strategies in five industrial sectors was also seen as beneficial, with predicted reductions to global anthropogenic methane emissions and prevention of (approx. 370,000) global premature deaths due to degree of ozone reduction between 2010-2030 (Gao et al., 2018).
Types of identified actions: Reducing combustion and carbon intensity of fossil fuels; use of carbon capture and storage; increase of forest cover and use of biofuels; expanding alternative and/or renewable energy generation and use of natural gas, wind, nuclear energy sources.
What we know: Greenhouse gas mitigation strategies can lead to significant and potentially cost-effective public health co-benefits (Gao et al., 2018). Adopting energy efficiency and fuel substitution policy measures in México City, São Paulo, Santiago, and New York from 2000 to 2020 was estimated to reduce GHG emissions by about 13% and prevent about 64,000 premature deaths (CI: 18,000-116,000) by reducing exposure to PM10 and O3 by 10% (see Cifuentes et al., 2001 in Gao et al., 2018). Decreasing fossil fuel use and demand while increasing forest cover, biofuels use and carbon capture and geologic storage could help to slow global mean temperature increases and avoid millions of premature deaths associated with reductions to PM2.5 and O3 (See West et al., 2013 in Gao et al., 2018).
Definition: Integrated Environmental Strategies (IES) are multi-component strategies that can involve a combination of fuel control, energy structure switching and use of low emission vehicles.
What we know: Greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation strategies can lead to significant and potentially cost-effective public health co-benefits (Gao et al., 2018). An IES approach in South Korea was predicted to be more effective than individual air quality and GHG reduction measures and CO2 emissions by 10% (compared to 2014 business as usual) and prevent 5,695 premature deaths (95% CI: 2867-8377) associated with PM10 (see Chae and Park 2011 in Gao et al., 2018).
Definition: Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) projects came out of the Kyoto Protocol and involve funding abatement projects in secondary countries that are used to gain certified emissions reduction (CER) credits that the funding country can use against their emissions targets.
What we know: Greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation strategies can lead to significant and potentially cost-effective public health co-benefits (Gao et al., 2018). A CDM project in China that involved installing renewable energy, upgraded technologies and fuel switching was found to have win-win-win effects for air quality, public health and agriculture outcomes see Rive and Aunan 2010 in Gao et al., 2018).
What we know: Greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation strategies can lead to significant and potentially cost-effective public health co-benefits (Gao et al., 2018). Multi-component strategies targeting emissions in different sectors such as transport, building and energy appear to be more effective at reducing emissions than individual measures (Gao et al., 2018). A study of five European and two Chinese cities modelled the effects of changes to heating, powerplant fuel, biofuels in transport, 10% reduction in private care use, 50% growth in electric cars and building renovations among other measures in the urban transport, building and energy sectors and found that by 2020, all policies would reduce CO2 emissions (to different extents) compared to business as usual (see Sabel et al., 2016 in Gao et al., 2018). All policies were likely to have co-benefits for health, except changes to biomass for domestic heating (see Sabel et al., 2016 in Gao et al., 2018).
Types of identified actions: Provision of solar panels, bicycle blenders and/or solar ovens; stove exchange; ban on wood burning; ban on sale, distribution and burning of coal.
What we know: Greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation strategies can lead to significant and potentially cost-effective public health co-benefits (Gao et al., 2018). Mixed effects for health and air quality outcomes were reported for interventions targeting residential sources of emissions (Burns et al., 2019). Coal bans showed differential effects within cities in Ireland. In Dublin, there were associated decreases to respiratory-linked mortality but no effects were seen for all-cause or cardiovascular mortality; whereas, in Cork and five small Irish cities, there were no clear changes to all-cause, cardiovascular or respiratory mortality (see Dockery 2013a-c in Burns et al., 2019). Stove exchange programmes in British Columbia and southern India were not associated with clear changes in PM2.5, but an intermittent wood burning ban in California showed decreased PM2.5 concentration (see Yap 2015 in Burns et al., 2019).
Types of identified counteracting strategies: knowledge dissemination; elite cue correction; content and logic-based inoculation against misinformation.
What we know: Efforts to improve factually accurate understandings of the scientific consensus around climate change using knowledge dissemination, elite cue correction and content and local-based inoculation show promise for changing perceptions and beliefs and neutralising misinformation around climate change, but results can be inconsistent and they don't necessarily lead to policy support (Mendy et al., 2024). Education-based approaches also rely on the willingness of participants to be exposed to this information and as such, the effectiveness of these interventions can be affected by selective exposure bias (e.g., students choosing to take climate change courses) (see Hess and Maki 2019 in Mendy et al., 2024).
Types of identified actions: Cap and trade programme; factory closures; compulsory power plant standards and conversions.
What we know: Greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation strategies can lead to significant and potentially cost-effective public health co-benefits (Gao et al., 2018). Mixed effects for health and air quality outcomes were reported for interventions targeting industrial sources of emissions (Burns et al., 2019). Studies examining factory closures in the US and Australia and a power plant conversions in Israel showed mixed effects for emission reductions and health outcomes (Burns et al., 2019). No significant effects of cap and trade programmes like the US NOx Budget Trading Program and Chinese Two Zone Control policy were noted on all-cause mortality (Burns et al., 2019).
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